Feed-Forward Learning

To learn with feed-forward networks we want to use the same sort of gradient descent method we used in perceptron learning.
In order to see how this will work, lets look at the outputs of the multilayer neural net given on the first slide.
As an example,the output activation for unit 5 from the simple network of last day can be calculated as
`a_5 = g(w_(05) + w_(35)a_3 + w_(45)a_4)`
We can in turn expand `a_3` and `a_4` to get:
`a_5 = g(w_(05) + w_(35)g(w_(03) + w_(13)x_1 + w_(23)x_2) + w_(45)g(w_(04) + w_(14)x_1 + w_(24)x_2))`
In other words, any output value can by be rewritten as function of only the input values.
Unfortunately, this function can be highly nonlinear, so computing how the Loss affects an individual gate is harder.
In general our algorithm will now be a kind of nonlinear regression.

More Feed-Forward Learning

The basic strategy to train is to calculate an update from the loss function as we did in the perceptron case.
We note the loss functions is additive, so for any weight `w` we have:
`frac(del)(del w)Loss(vec(w)) = frac(del)(del w)||\vec(y) - vec(h)_(vec(w))(vec(x))||^2 = frac(del)(del w)sum_k(y_k - a_k)^2 = sum_k frac(del)(del w)(y_k -a_k)^2`
where `a_k` are the activations at the last layer.
Note given the inputs we can exactly calculate these `a_k` by expanding as on the last slide.
The above equation shows as in the perceptron network case, if we have `m`-outputs we can decompose the problem into `m` learning problems, one for each output.
The errors at the output layers as a function `f` are reasonably clear (same as the perceptron case), but how do we calculate the error for an internal unit?
We describe how to do this for the layer immediately before the output layer. This process can then be done in the same fashion for each earlier layer back to the inputs. This process is called back propagation.
Let `Err_k` denote the `k`th component of the vector `vec(y) - vec(h)_(vec(w))` of the last layer.
Let `i\n_k` denote the specific value of the dot product of the weights and inputs into node `k` (again computable by expansion).
We define the modified error to be `Delta_k = Err_k times g'(i\n_k)`. Using this, the update rule for the `j`th weight going into `k`th component of the last layer is:
`n\ewW_(jk) = w_(jk) + \alpha times a_j times Delta_k`.
Hidden node `j` in the layer immediately before the last layer is "responsible" for some fraction of the error `Delta_k` in each of the output nodes it connects to.
So we divide the `Delta_k` values according to the strength of the connection between the hidden node and the output node to compute a value for `Delta_j` which could be used to then update the weights going into node `j`.
The formula for `Delta_j` is
`Delta_j = g'(i\n_j)sum_kw_(jk)Delta_k`.
This formula is the error back propagation.

Back Propagation Learning Algorithm

Putting this all together we get the following algorithm:

The book has a graph showing that decision tree learning in the restaurant example is only slightly better than using a feed-forward network.

Non-parametric Learning

Neural Networks use the training data to estimate a fixed set of parameters `vec w`.
A learning model that summarizes data with a set of parameters of a fixed size is called a parametric model.
No matter how much data is thrown at the model it doesn't changes its mind about how many parameters to learn from.
A nonparametric is one that cannot be characterized by a bounded set of parameters.
For example, suppose our method of learning was to make a big table of all the labeled examples given.
When someone asks for a the label of some input `x`, we look it up in the table, if found, we return the label there, otherwise we output "don't know".
This kind of learning is called instance-based learning or memory-based learning and obviously does not generalize well.
It is nonparametric though in that as the training set changes or grows the number of things we are keeping track of in order to give a result also changes.

Nearest Neighbor Model

Let's now consider a better nonparametric learning model.
We assume we have some kind of binary classification problem.
Suppose when given a query `vec x_q`, we lookup the `k` nearest neighbors to `vec x_q` with respect to some kind of distance function.
Denote these neighbors by `N\N(k, vec x_q)`.
To classify `vec x_q`, we take the majority vote of these `k` neighbors.
This is nonparametric as that we need to keep all of the training data in order to run this algorithm -- we don't learn some fixed parameters and then forget the training data.
If we choose `k` too small we can get overfitting issues (outliers can cause mis-classification) and too big we can get underfitting issues (for example, if we chose `k` the whole data set size than we are just doing majority vote on the training set).
We can use different `k` and perform tests to see which works best using cross-validation techniques. Usually, the result will be somewhere between `k=1` and square root of the data set size.

Choice of Distance Function

How do we say how far apart a query point, `vec x_q`, is from an example point, `vec x_e`?
If the vectors are from `RR^n`, then we could use an `L^p`-norm:
`L^p(vec x_q, vec x_e) = (sum_i|x_(e,i) - x_(q,i)|^p)^(1/p)`
When `p=2` this is the usual Euclidean distance, for `p=1` it is Manhattan distance.
If the coordinates each take on Boolean values then we can use the number of coordinates that differ in value. I.e., the Hamming distance.
For documents, we can use edit distance to say how close they are, or we can make a vector using distinct columns for each word and frequency counts of that word as the size of that component.
Notice the range of values of each coordinate can be quite different.
Frequently, a normalization step is applied coordinate-wise so that each coordinate has roughly the same weight.
For example a `x_(j,i)` value might be mapped to `(x_(j,i) - mu_i)/sigma_i` where `mu_i` is the mean over the training set of the `i`th component values, and `sigma_i` is its standard deviation.

Making Lookups of Nearest Neighbors Efficient

One way to look up `N\N(k, vec x_q)` is to cycle overall the data set and find the `k` closest points.
If the dataset has `N` elements this is an `O(N)` algorithm.
To speed this up, we can use a `k-d` tree.
This tree is constructed as follows, we cycle over each coordinate (repeating coordinates until we get down to a single examples), we compute the median value for that coordinate, we put the examples less than the median in the left branch those bigger in the right branch, etc.
Using `k-d`-trees the look up time can be brought down to `O(log N)`.
Another technique is to use a locality sensitive hash function: We choose `m` coordinates `(c_1, ..., c_m)` from the set of all coordinates for our examples at random. For each of these coordinates we have a hash table `h_i` of bin's of values of examples with respect to this coordinate `c_i`.
When we get a new item to classify we look up which examples in the set were close to our query with respect to each of the `c_i`. Then pick the `k` closest of these using linear search.

Quiz

Which of the following is true?

The Importance function for our decision tree learning algorithm chooses the attribute among the remaining attributes which provides the least information gain as the attribute to use for the root of the tree.
A 2-input perceptron, provided we've chosen the weights accordingly, can be used to compute an XOR if its inputs.
Our learning algorithm for sigmoid perceptrons tries to choose weights so as to minimize the Loss function and does this using a steepest decent method.

Support Vector Machines

We next look at one way to make our perceptron model into a nonparametric learning scheme
The model we get is called a support vector machine or SVM.
It turns out not only are SVMs more robust in terms of the classifiers they build, they also can be used to solve problems not solvable by traditional perceptrons.

Building a Better Separator

Separators for traditional perceptron model (a) and SVM model (b)

If we look at the left hand image above, any one of the three lines separates all of the black points from the white points.
So any one of the three lines minimizes the empirical loss, the number of training examples mis-classified, and, depending on the data and starting weight guesses, might have resulted from our algorithm for learning weights. The innermost one though is very close to a lot of black dots and one might expect that it would be less robust in classifying new queries.
The diagram on the right shows a maximum margin separator. Here the margin is the width of the area bounded by dashed lines in the figure. It is defined as twice the distance from the separator to the nearest example point.
Using a maximum margin separator will tend to minimize generalization loss (it should tend to make fewer errors on new data).
SVM are essentially perceptrons where the weights are set so that a maximum margin separator is calculated. SVMs also unlike perceptrons allow for a mapping function which maps problems from a lower dimensional space where the data might not be linearly separable to a higher dimensional space where it can be.

Computing Maximum Margin Separator

The equation of a hyperplane is `vec w cdot vec x + b = 0` for some constant vector weight vector `vec w` and constant weight value `b`.
Suppose our training examples are of the form `(vec x_j, y_j)` where `y_j` is 0 or 1.
The book magically gives the equation for the maximal separator as a quadratic programming problem of maximizing the function `mbox(argmax)_(vec alpha) (sum_j alpha_j - 1/2 sum alpha_j alpha_k y_j y_k (vec x_j cdot vec x_k))`
subject to `alpha_j ge 0` and `sum_j alpha_jy_j = 0`.
There are good software packages for this.
Once `vec alpha` has been computed, `vec w` can be computed via `vec w = sum_j alpha_j vec x_j`.
The above function is convex and has a single global maximum. Also, the data only enters the expression in the form of a dot product of pairs of points.
A classifier can be built out of `vec alpha` directly using the equation:
`h(vec x) = sign(sum_j alpha_j y_j(vec x cdot vec x_j) - b)`
which also only uses the data in a dot product.
An important property of the `alpha_j`'s is that they are `0` usually except the support vectors -- the closest vectors to the separator (typically in each dimension).

SVMs in General

A general SVM classifier replaces the data set `vec x_j` with the result of mapping it into a different space with respect to some vector-valued function `vec F`.
That is the classifier, we get is of the form
`h(vec x) = sign(sum_j alpha_j y_j(vec F(vec x) cdot vec F(vec x_j)) - b)`
For example, in the above on the left hand side we have data which can't be separated by a linear equation in the plane.
We map the data to 3D, via the function `vec F(x_1, x_2) = (x_1^2, x_2^2, sqrt(2) x_1x_2)`.
We solve the quadratic programming problem in this new space and get a separator, giving the picture on the right.
Most SVM packages come with a list of functions to try. Using a `vec F` so dot products work out correctly so this works is called the kernel trick.

Nonparametric Learning

Outline